Article Type : Research Article
Authors : Mary Daniel Nimram, Daniel Nanlir Nimram, Nuhu Joseph Azi, Umeh Ann Ifeoma, Juliet David Aluke
Keywords : Index terms-cultural conceptualisations; Cultural linguistics; Euphemisms; Hedging; Post-proverbial; Taboo
This
research is a study of how some selected languages and their cultures name and
view certain concepts or ideas usually considered as ‘abominations’ or
‘taboos’, why they name them so and how the constant teachings of such taboo
concepts could enhance good morals in the society. In every society, there are
things believed to be inappropriate if spoken in public which are considered as
taboos. A taboo is an activity that is forbidden or sacred based on religious
beliefs or morals. An act may be a taboo in one culture and not in another.
This paper investigates some aspects of the major varieties of taboos. The
study uses the analytical tool of cultural conceptualisations which is a
framework of cultural linguistics to investigate the different ways some
selected plateau languages, (Mwaghavul, Tarok and Afizere) from Plateau
central, south and east respectively portray these taboo concepts. Fifteen
purposively selected taboo related proverbial expressions, as well as their
post proverbial constructions were subjected to critical analysis. The study
reveals that the concept of taboo is a universal concept which cuts across
cultures and traditions. There are more similarities than differences in the
way these selected languages portray taboos. There is a general hedging of
taboo concepts as most cultures do. The study also reveals that hedging such
taboo concepts will only make them sound “light” but also not reveal their true
‘destructive’ nature. Many cultures criticize the use of explicit terms to name
taboo issues but rather prefer to use euphemisms or cultural substitution or
even paraphrasing (which could be quite inappropriate) as against the view of
this study that recommends the norm of explicitness. Since language and culture
play vital roles in the lives of people in the society, efforts must be made to
state such taboo concepts explicitly with the aim of teaching morals and
instructing people which will go a long way in shaping their mind sets and
actions towards involving themselves in such taboos, thereby ensuring a better
society to live in. The world has changed, there are things we do and talk
about today that would never be done or discussed years ago. There are still a
lot of subjects not talked about that we really need to start talking about and
name them explicitly to portray the depth of their ‘badness’ so that people
will learn to see evil as evil and avoid getting involved in such moral
decadence.
According to Penfield, the common language, any fool
can go about it; but the use of proverbs displays your intelligence and
maturity. It is a general believe that people who use proverbs, are mature.
They are highly integrated into daily conversation and speech making and can be
found in every interactional setting in African society, be it urban,
peri-urban or rural. Proverbs are social modes of communication which have a
dominant role in most African societies. They are cultural tools for
transferring the traditions of a speech community in terms of their values,
beliefs and collective knowledge from one generation to another. They are folkloric
metaphors but unlike other oral folklore they are not set apart or restricted
to certain domains of usage. Proverbs are “culture markers” that tell us brief
and so much about history and psychology of the peoples and communities in
brief and intense terms. According to
Finnegan, the traditional proverb is a verbal, concrete realization of “a
feeling for language, for imagery, and for the expression of abstract ideas
through compressed and allusive phraseology…” (390). Meider defines proverbs as
“short, traditional statements used to further some social end”. It is vital to
note that the ‘social end’ is what makes the use of proverbs striking and
meaningful. Proverbs are contextualized metaphors’ which implies that they are
more literary and contextual than linguistic. Boadi contends that the general
conception of proverbs in preliterate societies as having the distinctive and
main function of teaching is “too pragmatic and limiting”, he suggests that the
artistic, literary features of such proverbs, which include “the sharp wit, the
sarcasm, the humour, the rhetoric, and …all the aesthetic and poetic values of
language use”, cannot be ignored (183).
Postproverbials are statements or sayings which are
extensions of traditional proverbs. Postproverbials have now become special and
popular sayings in the society. Postproverbials are usually created by
individuals as a reaction to the original ideas of traditional proverbs. One of
their major characteristics is that they make mockery of the serious ideas that
are contained in traditional proverbs. More postproverbials are being created
and invented by speakers in different languages day by day. Anyone who has
heard or used a proverb before is a potential creator or user of the
postproverbial. Raji-Oyelade defines Postproverbials radical speech acts which
are alternate creations derived from and which stand against traditional
proverbs which are produced either in jest or ignorance of conventional and
generally accepted and anonymous proverbs in a given culture. Postproverbials
are found in numerous formations in contemporary poetry, novels, drama, film,
music, sermons, speeches etc. Raji-Oyelade says postproverbials are considered
to be playful blasphemies inherently supplementary or subversive, a discursive
strategy of mimicry, in which received wisdoms are queried, tested and
subjected to textual rupture. Taboo words and expressions in public discourse
in both Western and African cultures are severely censored. Britain, for
example, has heavy sensorship of obscenity, legally coded as “obscene libel” or
“matter tending to deprave or corrupt” [1]. The free expression of taboo
matters exercised in postproverbials has elicited disapproval and disdain from
a large section of the public. One of the major factors is because the public’s
taste has been fostered so much by religious experiences and by the traditional
culture. Such taboos include sex, blood products, obscenity and vulgarity,
suicide, defecation, menstruation, among many others. This research is a study
of how some selected languages and their cultures name and view certain
concepts or ideas usually considered as ‘abominations’ or ‘taboos’, why they
name them so and how the constant teachings of such taboo concepts could
enhance good morals in the society.
Ademowo and Balogun wrote an article entitled,
“Postproverbial Constructions and Selected Sex-Related Yoruba Proverbs/
Proverbial Expressions” [2]. Their paper examines postproverbial constructions
involving sex-related Yoruba proverbs and proverbial expressions, and their
effects on the original meanings of these proverbs. Fifteen randomly selected
sex-related proverbs and proverbial expressions, as well as their
postproverbials constructions were selected as data. After subjecting the data
to critical analysis, their study reveals that while sex-related Yoruba
proverbs are essentially meant for communicating frank, stark and direct
situations, postproverbial constructions of the proverbs have distorted the use
of sex-related proverbs and proverbial expressions in communication most
especially because of the sex-image that were made more emphasized and given
increased visibility in the sex-related postproverbials. The study observes
that, other than for visual symbolism, the mention of sex organs in sex-related
Yoruba proverbs have no implications on original meaning of proverbs. They
discover that this is not the case with postproverbials as the sex image and
sexual performance become the main focus. The paper therefore concludes that Yoruba
language speakers should be conscious of the influence of these postproverbials
on the use of the sex-related Yoruba proverbs and their distorted meanings
which are quite different from the original, intended philosophical, meanings.
Raji-Oyelade in his article entitled “Postproverbials
in Yoruba Culture: A Playful Blasphemy” says there is virtually no substantial
controversy about the value of proverbs in cultures, and the significance of
proverbs in Yoruba traditional societies as repository and verbal effulgence of
wisdom is indeed proverbial [3]. He sees proverbs as “culture markers”.
According to him, the “relative fixity” or rigidity, of the typical traditional
proverb is apparently dictated by conventional usage, especially by the need to
transmit the verbal properties of the proverb, if not its conventional cultural
meaning, with absolute consistency and fidelity to its original structure. This
implies that there is an assumed quality of stasis in the traditional proverb
as conventional verbal genre; situated in the dynamic space of informal speech
and modern African culture, that relative fixity of proverbials dissolves and
ultimately are deconstructed as postproverbials. The present research is
however different from those reviewed above. It concentrates on how some
Plateau languages (Mwaghavul, Tarok and Afizire) and their cultures name and
view certain concepts usually considered as ‘abominations’ or ‘taboos’. It also
focuses on why they name them so and how the constant teachings of such taboo
concepts could enhance good morals in the society. This study seems to be the
first of its kind, to the best of the researchers’ knowledge in these Plateau
languages.
Fifteen purposively selected taboo related proverbs
and proverbial expressions, as well as their postproverbial constructions (five
from each of the three languages) were selected. These were recited by three
elderly men; one from each of the languages and transcribed by the researchers.
The original sources of these proverbs are anonymous since they are still in
their oral forms. The data were then subjected to critical analysis,
thereafter, discussions are made and conclusions drawn.
Framework
The framework used for this analysis is that of
Cultural Linguistics. Cultural linguistics is a multidisciplinary area of
research that explores the relationship between language, culture and
conceptualisations. Cultural linguistics
brings to light a wide array of cultural conceptualisations, drawn from many
different languages and language varieties. It can produce an indepth and
insightful investigations into the cultural grounding of language in several
domains and sub-disciplines including religion, World Englishes, Pragmatics,
Inter-culcural communication and a host of others. Cultural linguistics is rich
and relevant in demonstrating the relevance of the cultural conceptualisations
of emotion, body, humour, religion, gender, kinship, politics etc.
Below are some of the taboo-related proverbs, their
philosophical meanings and their postproverbial constructions.
Mwaghavul data
Text
1
Traditional proverb: ko we shwa am tulukiri
Philosophical meaning: everyone should drink water
from his house
Postproverbial: ko we shwa wur ki nighin kiri
Meaning: everyone should suck from his mother’s
breasts
Implication: this proverb is used to teach contentment
Text
2
Traditional proverb: jirgurum mu put mbutki mat
Philosophical meaning: All men come from the womb of a
woman
Postproverbial: jirgurum mu put nner ki mat
Meaning: All men come from the vagina of a woman
Implication: this proverb is used to show respect to
womanhood or motherhood
Text
3
Traditional proverb: kaji a na bon ki mat maigurumkas
Philosophical meaning: do not look at the behind of
another man’s wife
Postproverbial: kaji a na bider ki mat maigurum kas
Meaning: do not look at the buttocks of another man’s
wife
Implication: this proverb teaches fidelity, especially
in marriage
Text
4
Traditional proverb: ba membi ki du mbu kas
Philosophical meaning: nothing smells without a cause
Postproverbial: ba dyes kidu mbu kas
Meaning: excreta does not smell without a cause
Implication: this proverb is used to draw attention to
the fact that in life, nothing happens without a cause.
Text
5
Traditional proverb: ba pe khizing ki mat des mbu kas
Philosophical meaning: the woman’s private part does
not widen for nothing
Postproverbial: ba ner ki mat des mbu kas
Meaning: the woman’s vagina does not widen for nothing
Implication: this proverb teaches the principle of
cause and effect.
Tarok
data
Text
6
Traditional proverb: awar abongbong I mar iwan wona
Philosophical meaning: A bad seed produces its kind
Postproverbial: Ace a bongbong I mar iwan won a
Meaning: A bad penis or vagina produces its kind.
Implication: this proverb is used to teach the fact
that a tree produces its kind; either good or bad, and so also humans.
Text
7
Traditional proverb: iyem I n?ng kam wang kat
Philosophical meaning: something doesn’t smell without
a cause
Postproverbial: am?ng I n?ng kam wang kat
Meaning: Faeces does not just smell without a cause
Implication: like two Mwaghavul proverbs discussed
above (4 and 5), this proverb teaches the principle of cause and effect.
Text
8
Traditional proverb: onung gwang I nim inok inenen ki
zwamte I nak u cha I yilka taka tan tan
Philosophical meaning: If a man does his night duty
well, the wife smiles at day light
Postproverbial: Uchava ma ce pa watkizwante I yil kaa
takatan tan
Meaning: A woman that was really fucked at night
smiles at day light.
Implication: this proverb is used to draw the
attention of men on the need to make their wives happy.
Text
9
Traditional proverb: ma tat na cit
Philosophical meaning: She has been shot
Postproverbial: Ma naaya mana cit
Meaning: The woman has been impregnated
Implication: this proverb is used to caution young
girls about the need for a chaste life
Text
10
Traditional proverb: u cha u dakdak in?n?ng
Philosophical meaning: A dirty woman smells
Postproverbial: u cha v ace ace bet tein?ngizirn?ng
Meaning: A woman who fucks too much often smells
Implication: this proverb teaches hygiene
Afizere
data
Text
11
Traditional proverb: Anera binin gata se be kafa
kaarnatuk ba
Philosophical meaning: A pregnant woman does not go
out in the night
Postproverbial: Anera binin gata se be kafa kaarnatuk
ba, abufe ye anyiin yaka gwom
Meaning: A pregnant woman does not go out in the
night, it is prostitution
Implication: this proverb is used to teach faithfulness,
especially in marriages
Text
12
Traditional proverb: Ashon yanaro be nanyisi ba
Philosophical meaning: Elders do not eat their portion
in a house of mourning
Postproverbial: Ashon yanaro be nanyisi ba, itato nong
ye ashon bi iwhi
Meaning: Elders do not eat their portion in a house of
mourning, it belittles them
Implication: this proverb is used to caution elders on
the need to avoid anything that would earn them disrespect in the community
Text
13
Traditional proverb: Itsitsing tisonong natoon kama
amaara merwu ba
Philosophical meaning: A fly does not sit on a bad
person’s property
Postproverbial: tsitsing tisonong natoon abingama ara
merwu ba
Meaning: A fly does not sit on a bad person’s feaces
Implication: this proverb is used to teach uprightness
as a virtue
Text
14
Traditional proverb: A shosh are satin kiiska shoon wu
Philosophical meaning:
To burn the thing that covers your nakedness
Postproverbial: A shosh nasha I kpangwu
Meaning: To burn the thing that covers your buttocks
Implication: this proverbs teaches gratefulness and
appreciation
Text
15
Traditional proverb: A nook naya be kubok rimen ba
Philosophical meaning: you do not give someone food
with the left hand
Postproverbial: A nook naya be kubok rimen ba, atafeye
wan nook bi riye rizining ba
Meaning: you do not give someone food with the left
hand, it shows you did not give it wholeheartedly.
Implication: this proverb draws attention to the need
for respect
Essentially, some of the selected postproverbials
meanings and interpretations show lack of wisdom which their original proverbs
intend to promote. These postproverbials designate lack of guiding values
embedded in them. It is in this light that Raji-Oyelade is of the opinion that
postproverbials are consequences of new consciousness of African
modernity, resulting from the vanishing
of the real village or community square tradition and decline in the deployment
of the standard resources of these languages. However, some of them reflect
explicitness which is vital for effective understanding of such issues messages
they try to pass across. It is obvious from our analysis that there is a wide
gap between the intended philosophical meaning of the proverbs and the meaning
that the postproverbial constructions convey. According to Raji-Oyelade,
certain views are that postproverbials are signs and evidence of a new
consciousness of African modernities. While we must admit that there is
modernization, we must also be careful that modernization does not take us to
the extreme; culture must not be bastardised. Also, drawing from the
implications of the explicated taboo proverbs and postproverbial expressions,
it is important to ask why the Mwaghavul, Tarok and Afizere people engage in
such verbal expressions of taboo, despite their disdain for vulgarity. Most of
these postproverbial constructions are distortions of verbal art which result
to alterations in the intended meaning and interpretations. However, some of
the postproverbial expressions bring out the actual meanings, thereby avoiding
ambiguities. It is obvious from the analysis that traditional proverbs use a
lot of hedges for taboo words and expressions. Postproverbials on the other
hand are explicit and exact in their choice of words [4-11].
Implications
It is vital to note that, having established that
postproverbials are capable of giving distorted values and orientations to the
native wisdom, and relating such postproverbial construction to taboo-related
proverbs, this study discovers how it has distorted the meanings of
taboo-related proverbs. However, the study also reveals that hedging some of
such taboo concepts will not only make them sound ‘light’ but also not reveal
their true ‘destructive’ nature. Many cultures criticize the use of explicit terms
to name taboo issues but rather prefer to use euphemisms or cultural
substitution or even paraphrasing (which could be quite inappropriate,
ambiguous and unclear) as against the view of this study that recommends the
norm of explicitness.
Like any other proverbs, taboo-related proverbs should
be used in context and appropriately. It should be used modesty and with
conventional wisdom. This study recommends a deliberate introduction of
postproverbial versions of the proverbs into Mwaghavul, Tarok and Afizere
proverbs teaching (in each of the languages). This is so that the distorted
version would be learnt alongside the original. Since language and culture play
vital roles in the lives of people in the society, efforts must be made to
state such taboo concepts explicitly with the aim of teaching morals and
instructing people which will go a long way in shaping their mind sets and
actions towards involving themselves in such taboos, thereby ensuring a better
society to live in. The world has changed, there are things we do and talk
about today that would never have been done or discussed years ago. There are
still a lot of subjects not talked about that we really need to start talking
about and name them explicitly to portray the depth of their ‘badness’. This
will go a long way in making people learn to see evil as evil and avoid getting
involved in such moral decadence.