Article Type : Review Article
Authors : Fisogni P
Keywords : Darn; Mending; Repair; Systemic thinking; Thread; Stitches; Reparative justice
Mending is a highly philosophical topic because it questions two major issues of metaphysics: identity and change. This aim of this paper is to examine the processes involved in the act of darning in textile objects through the lens of systemic thinking. Two interrelated components of darning are scrutinized: the thread and the stitches. Their interaction gives rise to a complex theoretical subject that can be equated to an individual for the central role this relationship plays in this textile practice. Finally, the author will show that the processes detected within the textile realm are a valuable tool for the understanding of the reparative practices applied to justice that are also investigated by psychology and law studies.
The
word darn evokes a process: the effort to restore something that has been
damaged. Specifically, something is darned when a fabric or other material is
mended; generally in the textile realm, this is done by sewing stitches across
the whole itself or by applying similar or different fabrics over it. From a
philosophical point of view, mending is definitely an ontological operation,
because it means rebuilding something, to restore the integrity of an object in
a new, different way. On a semantic level, the term darn melts together two
ideas, positive and negative. In ordinary language the exclamation ‘darn it’ it
is an expression of annoyance or surprise (Darn it! I missed the train). Both
characteristics can be understood by thinking of a mended pair of socks: they
are still usable (good thing), despite their being worn and overused (bad
thing). In the past, when mending
clothes was a sign of poverty because the wearer was unable to buy a new
garment, the presence of a darn was a matter of shame for the wearer. Today’s
fashion, by emphasising the reuse/recycling of worn garments makes a turn
towards interpreting a mended garment as an eco-sustainable practice at the
intersection of multiple anthropological areas of interest (Spelman 2002;
Bialski, Derwanz, Otto and Vollmer 2015). Such a valuable approach to darning
is a well-known part of Japanese culture. The folk textile tradition of
sashiko, literally meaning to pierce something (or someone), has been used in
Japan for the past few hundred years, particularly to strengthen clothing in
the cold winters of the T?hoku region. As Wada notes «a threaded needle can be
viewed as the co-agent of stitches, infusing their materials with properties in
a ‘processual’ and relational manner that reflects the currents of the
lifeworld (…) threaded needle provides
agency for negotiating between substances and the medium that surrounds textile
and people» (Wada 2020: 1, 8). From this
perspective, repair is the main path to a renewal that elaborates the concept
of novelty in a different way. As a keyword of fashion and being in fashion,
the "new" in mending is to be interpreted as a new possibility of
being rather than a new object. This concept does not only invites us to
rethink the notion of “newness” or the aesthetics of “newness” because it
belongs in a profound way to the human condition (Wiens 2013; Reeves-Evison and
Rainey 2018). The human being, as Arendt has widely theorized (1958), renews
himself every time through action. As we
have seen, a mended textile is made of thread and stitches. The interaction
between the two components reveals several dynamics that are generally
under-theorised or completely neglected by philosophy (Fisogni 2024). Before
investigating these, a brief account of systems thinking is in order.
A
Systemic Point of View
Complex
phenomena, i.e. most of the phenomena of life, can be better understood through
a systemic approach (Bertalannfy 1967; Urbani Ulivi 2019; Minati 2019), which
allows an understanding on a more comprehensive basis (Urbani Ulivi 2019: VI).
Through the lens of systemic thinking, the main question is not about what
something is, but how it functions in its inner layers and in relation to other
entities and with the environment in which each phenomenon is embedded. Focusing
on the processes behind what happens in fashion is the main aim of the current
research. As already outlined, the term fashion is primarily understood as the
clothing system. Although systemic thinking has become increasingly popular
among scholars in recent years, and is by nature interdisciplinary, some
explanations are useful for a better understanding of its
macro-characteristics. The first idea to keep in mind in this theoretical
perspective is that all the objects around us are not simply ‘things’ composed
of ‘parts’, but systems and each of them is the result of several
interrelations. The second step, in becoming familiar with General System
Thinking (GST) emphasises the concept of relation/interrelation, which is based
both on the well-ordered dynamics of every phenomenon of life and the capacity
to give rise to new, unexpected properties. There is a broad consensus among
international scholars that systemic thinking is the more valuable
interdisciplinary perspective for dealing with complex issues because of its
ability to grasp the interrelationships that link them. Complexity is a term
that belongs to a wide range of topics; it belongs very much to fashion whose
identity is intuitively systemic by nature, so that it is generally discussed
in term of the fashion system in the economic context. Although we intuitively agree on what a
complex phenomenon is, the definitions differ. The problem of complexity is to
arrive at a definition. On this premise, it can be understood why «the concept
of complexity (…) is strictly related to the temporary state in which the
observer finds himself» (Pessa 2013: 75).
According to the GST (Urbani Ulivi 2019) objects and events are
considered in terms of open systems; this means that they are not mere
aggregations or sums of parts, but primarily dynamic units, to which pertain
qualities are attached that depend on many interactions and processes, internal
or external to the system, in the context of a continuous exchange with the
environment that gives rise to systemic properties or II type systemic
properties. Scholars can rightly speak, of «an ordered of interrelated parts
whose characteristics depend both on the characteristics of the parts and on
the web of their interconnections» (Agazzi 2019: X). Each system can thus be
seen as a simple and complex unit that interacts with the whole. Historically,
the idea of a system has been deeply intertwined with modern scientific
thinking, since Galileo’s Dialogo sui due massimi sistemi (1632), but in the
contemporary era it was revived by the Austrian biologist Von Bertalanffy who
developed a paradigm (General System Theory 1968) that also draws on also
models elaborated in cybernetics that can be applied to a multidisciplinary
field. In shortf, GST fits a variety of issues towhich analytical philosophy,
linear thinking and reductionist approaches have generally proved unable to
provide answers. Traditional conceptual frameworks have been updated or
rewritten (e.g., finalism or radicalisation, as the author will argue in the paper)
while new concepts, derived from biology or computational sciences
(auto-organisation, emergence, equivalence, dissipation, balance) have been
forged and successfully applied. Like a veritable rock in the pond, GST, by
virtue of its non-linear approach, offers a valuable key to understanding
phenomena that affect multiple levels of the human experience, from natural
science, medicine, biology to politics and philosophy. In recent years, scholars have demonstrated
that the systemic approach provides a better response to contemporary social
phenomena than linear thinking. However, the new approach has not yet reached
the core of the problem, as it provides a general, punctual overview of the
interactions between subsystems, without addressing the explanation of how
these dynamics work. Unlike the ‘first systemics’, which aims in particular to
study the organization of complex systems, the ‘second systemics’ sheds light
on coherence and dynamics of aggregations (Pessa 2013; Minati, Pessa &
Abram 2016), as Urbani Ulivi notes, warning against «the risk of systemic
reductionism» (Ulivi 2019: VI). The
concept of emergence, within a framework of theoretical incompleteness (Minati
and Pessa 2018), is a cornerstone of the systemic thinking. It is primarily
concerned with the origin of systemic properties (or second-level systemic
properties) that result from the interactions within systems and between
systems and the environment. The human mind is a paradigmatic case of this: it
cannot be reduced to the chemical processes of the brain, nor its functions and
activities, but can be explained in terms of environmental interactions with
the neuronal cells (Urbani Ulivi 2013; 2019). Language, as well as many aspects
of fashion – the trends or the same idea of elegance - naturally belong to this
field. At this point of the paper it is possible to take a closer look at the
processes underlying the practice of darning and to show how relevant they are
also from a philosophical point of view.
The
Thread as a Channel of Processes
The word thread,
at the root of the clothing realm, refers to a fine cord of several materials
spun out to considerable length or twisted filaments or fibres of any kind used
for sewing, knitting or weaving. Furthermore, the origin of the thread is related
to several acts that are part of the more complex process of joining. In the
world of music, string instruments, or chord phones, are objects that produce
different sounds from vibrating strings when someone plays, sounds or touches
the strings. The thread becomes a string when it transmits sounds; in
cordophone instruments, the strings are incorporated into the body of the
instrument itself. As in the case of wearing, there is a reciprocal,
interactive relationship. The human body is also an example of this reciprocal
cooperation, with the vocal chords or vocal folds that produce the sounds of
the voice. The semantic field of thread is linked to
the idea of creating links and connecting together different objects to form a
new entity. In general, textile
glossaries also consider the thread count in terms of 1) the number of ends and
picks per inch in a woven fabric; 2) the number of wales and courses per inch
in a knitted fabric. Since the dawn of civilisation, the thread has been
associated with organised societies. Next to
the body of “Ötzi the Iceman”, the mummified 5,000-year-old man frozen in the
Italian Dolomites Mountains was found a string of about 2 meters for his wooden
hunting bow, which was still unfinished at the time of the Neolithic hunter’s
death. Made from three twisted threads, probably the tendons of an unidentified
animal, the string – together with the other items of Ötzi’s equipment –
reveals a fine technical craftsmanship. Obtained from plants, string made
hunting more successful 20,000-30,000 years ago; Neolithic man applied weaving
techniques to a limited number of crafts. The Greek myth of the Ariadne’s
thread, which tells of the string she gave Theseus to escape labyrinth of
Crete, associates the thread, as well as the processes of spinning and winding,
with the ability to solve complex problems. From a systemic perspective, a thread
evokes the network of the interactions between systems, creating a map of wires
from which energy is released. It is worth noting that in computer science the
notion of thread is a core concept for processing information, a basic sequence
of programmed instructions. Within the Internet, a thread is a sequence of
responses to an initial message posting. It is also a programming technique.
In addition to the specific geometrical properties of
a straight line, which is equal to itself with respect to the point and is
expected to have certain properties (for any two distinct points, there is a
unique line containing them, and any two distinct lines intersect in at most
one point), a thread is an entity associated with the state of being fluid.
This key-trait plays a main role in the systemic processes, which also have
relevant consequences for the fashion items, as it will be argued. In short, a thread can be seen as
a kind of channel that allows information to flow within, in a constant,
continuous way, from point to point. If fluidity is highly relevant in terms of
transporting physical qualities (hot, cold, dry, wet) or volatile contents
(tenderness, softness, roughness), the channel-like structure of a thread
displays its transformative potential. Opacity,
originally a physical property of the matter, is a key word in systemic thinking because it
represents the vast region of interactions (Vitiello, 2019) and, secondly, it
brings to the surface some cognitive activities: more precisely, the inferences
that the mind makes in order to grasp phenomena of which it has no direct
knowledge. To better understand this passage, we can imagine the surface of a
metal being hit by a ray of light. This event generates series of feedbacks
that operate at the most inaccessible, invisible, microscopic level of matter.
This domain is the barycentre of a transformative process that occurs between
an observable level of description (radicalisation) and an invisible one (the
domain of opacity), between input (the beam of light) and output (the response
of matter). In spite if its invisibility, this level gives physical observation
a certain degree of understanding; it allows hypotheses whose credibility is
given by the verifiability of predictions made on the two visible levels of the
process: input/output. Focusing on the invisible, but theoretically grounded
connection between the ‘possible’ and the ‘effective’ side of any action,
means highlighting the passage from a
single thread of cotton, silk or wood to a finite object, or understanding why
a dress is not simply a garment but it collects and transforms the collective
productive / creative effort of a community. From this point of view, it is
also easy to see why a systemic approach is needed for a deeper understanding
of what sustainability means for fashion. Furthermore, it can be realized why fashion
“speaks” and communicates (ideas, narratives) far beyond the story of the
garment itself. Nevertheless, the multifaceted and fluid identity of the thread
makes it easier to intellectually grasp why the thread carries so many
metaphorical issues. I quote some expressions: the thread of thoughts, losing the thread, finding the
thread, the thread of reasoning. The meanings they convey are intuitive, even if not
superimposable. In the first statement, the idea of the fluidity of mental
activity clearly prevails, almost as if the ideas were strung on a
hypothetical, imaginary thread, whose elasticity allows for constant
readjustments. The second metaphor throws light on a kind of reasoning that can
be interrupted when logical coherence is lacking. The lost thread also recalls
the myth of Ariadne on Naxos bringing to the surface the idea of
disorientation. It is an experience that, on a cognitive level, corresponds to
silence or stammering. Furthermore, one finds the “right thread” when
everything flows smoothly in the discourse, as in life. On a strictly
metaphorical level, however, the thread of argumentation provides something
more than the dynamics underlying the thread. In addition to the coherence of
the reasoning, good argumentation reveals clarity in thought. It is interesting
to note that in the metaphors associated with the thread, the idea that
processes of fluidity and linearity tend to prevail over connection. A concept that
is typically linked to the thread, especially in the textile field.
Furthermore, the thread is also what connects parts and sutures wounds. However, the metaphor primarily captures the
thread’s characteristic OAS a channel for the rapid transit of the immaterial.
This is the red thread / le fil rouge that brings us back to the
beginning of the systemic meditation on the potential of the thread. Three dynamics are separable.
Flowing: A passage of
information, content, energy made possible by the linear structure of the
thread grounds the transcendental conditions for dissipative events. Each point
of the thread can therefore be seen as a unit of flow feeding the entire whole
string.
Input / Output: Signals from different sources flow into
and out of the fibres of the thread
giving rise to a balancing process between the energy of S (the thread) and S1
(the fabric), or between the energy of S and S2 (the wearer). A continuous
change of the components of the thread is part of this process.
Connecting: A thread is the basic feature of a network
system where information flows very quickly due to the linear, elastic, fluid
network of interrelations. A vivid example of this process is the neural
network. Each thread has a high organisational potential due to its ability to
give a unified identity to multiple things/parts/bodies.
Unifying: The thread not only connects, it unites. The two processes seem similar,
and in part they are, but they involve different dynamics. To unite means to
make one of the many parts. Let's try to think about the work of the tailor,
who uses thread to sew together the main fabrics, those used in facings,
buttons, etc. Without the use of thread there would be no individual being in
any way – the individual – jacket, dress, and trousers. Clothes made without
the use of thread, i.e. without seams, resemble the "veil of Maja",
which is capable of constantly changing its identity with its form. A maxi
scarf of 140 cm x 140 cm, for example, becomes a long women's dress when tied
around the neck or a cloak, or a sarong or a sheet.
Stitches as Attempt at Coherence
As
a principle of coherence for textile objects, a stitch is basically a
deliberate turn of the thread with the aim of joining different parts into a
new coherent object. Since the Neolithic Age, the art of stitching was enhanced
and applied to many fields of life, from building shelters to clothing, and to
surgery. It is precisely the medical use that sheds light on the more intimate
systemic process associated with sewing: it was intended to restore wealth,
through a thread. Sewing has a relevant metaphysical function, which is to give
form to a garment. This term does not simply refer to a certain profile given
to an object, but to a form: it implies a dynamic principle that holds together
the multiple parts of which an object is made. Giving shape to a stitched
garment is not the same as styling a seamless garment. In the former case, an
autonomous entity is created, even ifn it is a bespoke garment, made to measure
for its owner. Clothes made from a single piece of fabric – a very common type
of dress in ancient Egypt – are modelled on the body of the person wearing them
and, once removed, they return to their original characteristics. The stitches
are therefore a process of identification; the sewn garment is an individual
that speaks the language of the fabric with which it is made of, of the
stitches that make it, and of the design that animates it. Another important
feature of embroidery is the message it conveys, using the thread as an
information carrier. A thread naturally speaks the language of the material it
is made of; it reveals the degree of humidity of the environment in which it is
kept. A coloured thread adds colour information. The thread used to sew a
fabric also speaks of the skill of those who used it, both in hand and machine
sewing. The style and taste of a historical period can be grasped immediately
by analysing the stitches. In a way, the stitches reveal the opaque material
that is the essence of the thread, as discussed in the previous paragraph. In
addition, a creative process takes place in which the thread is seen as the key
factor in the identity of the garment, no longer simply a "set of pieces
of fabric", but a dress, a pair of trousers, a bag.
Processes
Joining:
Joining is the process by which two or more parts are brought together using
different material synergies (heat, pressure) to create a new entity. A common
feature of joining is the demonstration of the steps necessary to achieve the
final goal. A valuable example of how to approach the essence of joining comes
from the EU's policy of integrating new members into the Community. It consists
of three stages: 1) When a country is ready, it becomes an official candidate
for membership. 2) The candidate country enters into formal membership
negotiations, a process that involves adopting existing EU law, preparing to
apply and enforce it properly, and implementing the judicial, administrative,
economic and other reforms necessary for the country to meet the conditions for
membership, known as the accession criteria. 3) When the negotiations and
accompanying reforms have been completed to the satisfaction of both sides, the
country can join the EU. If we go back to the EU procedure for enlarging the
community of states, the accession phase precedes the connection of the new
members. Furthermore: «In logos (from legein, to connect, to link) we are
confronted with the idea of a profound connection that binds things together,
that can be grasped by human beings according to an immediate mental act, the
noesis, which organises the world scenario without any mediator. It becomes
dianoia when the noesis is expressed in discursive or propositional form and
finally regimented in logical arguments» (Urbani Ulivi and Fisogni 2021: 190).
Uniting:
The idea of joining parts that can be related to each other is what
distinguishes the verbs 'to join' and 'to unite'. Both refer to a connection of
elements/parts, but a connection also indicates the efficiency of the
connection: it highlights a further step that enlarges the semantic space. We
can think of the synaptic connections between neurons or the web-like structure
of the Internet.
The anthropological texture of
darning
The act of mending establishes a profound relationship
between the individual and the textile, imbuing it with a metaphysical
character. The processes involved in repairing textiles,
detected before, can provide valuable insights into anthropological dynamics
related to psychological, behavioral, and environmental restoration. By
referencing the two components of textile activity, namely the thread and the
stitches, these processes clarify the opaque content of spiritual restoration
that inhabits restorative justice. Restorative justice aims to repair the harm
caused by a crime and involves both the victim and the offender. Unlike
retributive justice, which solely focuses on punishing the offender for
violating a legal norm, restorative justice acknowledges that a crime causes
harm to the victims as well as the community. Therefore, this approach to
punishment seeks to address the consequences of the crime and provide redress
to the victim. The mediator has a crucial role in facilitating, coordinating,
and verifying the effective repair of the damage. The restorative path aims to
meet the needs of the individual who has been harmed, rather than treating the
offense as an abstract case. It involves creating a precise network of
interactions between the offender, the victim, and the civil community. A
systemic environment in which the mediator plays a central role in
facilitating, coordinating, and verifying the effective reparation of the
damage. The experience can be compared to a(n intentionally) damaged fabric,
where the threads have been broken, resulting in a laceration. Restorative
justice presents processes that overlap with those discovered in the previous
scrutiny of the processes that especially inhere thread and stitches dynamics.
Similarly to the cut fabric, the victim suffers from the loss of his/her
systemic integrity with consequences that also affect the social community as a
whole. The judge's recommended course of action for the offender is not
primarily a punishment. Instead, it involves comprehensive repair of the harm
caused and benefits to the victim. This course of action is analogous to a
wire, which serves as a conduit for transmitting content. Similarly, in the
textile industry, a thread serves as a channel for inputs that are transformed
into outputs. In the process of reparative action, a range of values,
experiences, and messages are introduced to the affected parties with the goal
of facilitating change in both the victim and the perpetrator of the crime. This
connection is achieved through multiple threads and the use of an expertly
operated needle. The restorative justice process involves connecting separate
parts, similar to stitching damaged tissue with expert care. In the restorative
dynamics of a crime, the mediator plays a crucial role in bringing together the
two parties and ensuring compensation for the harm caused to the victim. The
process of restoring coherence is similar to mending, where each tear is unique
and requires a customized approach. The relationship between textile practice
and restorative justice is demonstrated through the 'Visible Mending'
initiative that has been recently implemented at Bassone prison in Como,
Northern Italy. This program offers prisoners the chance to mend worn items,
deliberately leaving visible alterations.
1. Agazzi, E, Urbani Ulivi L. Systemic Thinking: An
Introduction. In the Systemic Turn in Human and Natural Sciences. A Rock in the
Pond Cham, Switzerland: Springer. 2019.
2. Von Bertalanffy L. General System Theory. Foundations,
Development, Applications, New York: Braziller. 1967.
5. Minati G. From
Collective Beings to Quasi-Systems, New York, NY-Switzerland: Springer. 2018.
6. Fisogni, P. Pessa, E. Metaphysics of Fashion,
Chisinau: Lambert Academic Publishing. 2024
7. Pessa
E, Urbani Ulivi L. Emergenza,
metastrutture e sistemi gerarchici: verso una nuova teoria generale dei
sistemi. Strutture di mondo. Il pensiero
sistemico come specchio di una realtà complessa. 2013; 73-87.
8. Reeves-Evison T. Rainey MJ. Ethico-Aesthetic Repairs, Third
Text. 2018; 32: 1-15.
9. Spelman E. Repair: The impulse to restore in a fragile
world. Boston: Beacon Press. 2002.
14. Wiens K. the repair revolution, in T. McLellan (ed.)
Things come apart: A teardown manual for modern living. London: Thames. 2013.