Sausages are among the most widely consumed processed meat products worldwide, appreciated for their flavor, convenience, and versatility. However, their production involves various chemical and microbiological risks that can significantly affect consumer health. This review discusses the formulation and processing of different sausage types, focusing on the safety and nutritional aspects. Key concerns include the use of food additives such as nitrites, potential microbial contamination, and the impact of processing on nutritional quality. The review also explores consumer trends and the increasing demand for healthier and safer sausage products. Finally, it emphasizes the importance of stringent regulatory frameworks, quality assurance systems, and continuous research to ensure product safety and public health.

Sausages are a class of processed meat products prepared by grinding meat and mixing it with fat, salt, spices, and various additives. The mixture is typically stuffed into a casing and subjected to different processing methods such as cooking, fermentation, or smoking. Sausages can be made from various meat sources including beef, pork, poultry, and sometimes seafood [1-7]. The popularity of sausages stems from their taste, convenience, extended shelf-life, and adaptability to diverse culinary traditions. In countries like Egypt, sausages are commonly found in both traditional and industrial forms, contributing significantly to meat consumption [8-15]. Despite their popularity, sausages are also associated with public health concerns. The use of certain additives such as nitrites, the potential for microbial contamination, and high levels of salt and fat are all important safety issues. Moreover, the global rise in non-communicable diseases (e.g., hypertension, cardiovascular disease) has placed greater scrutiny on processed meats, prompting a push for healthier alternatives [16-23]. The food industry must ensure that sausage production adheres to safety standards and nutritional guidelines. This necessitates a thorough understanding of the ingredients used, the technologies employed in processing, and the safety and quality management systems applied. This paper aims to comprehensively review these elements, offering a scientific perspective for professionals and researchers in the food and veterinary sectors [24-30].

The formulation of sausages involves a complex interplay of ingredients that contribute to their taste, texture, appearance, shelf-life, and safety. Understanding each component is essential for optimizing quality and ensuring compliance with food safety standards [31-37]. Meat Types Used, The primary ingredient in sausages is meat, which may be derived from Beef wwhich is Common in many regions; offers a firm texture and rich flavour. Pork is traditionally used in European-style sausages due to its fat content and binding properties. Poultry (chicken, turkey). Gaining popularity for its lower fat content and health appeal. Others as Fish, mutton, or exotic meats may be used in niche or regional varieties. The choice of meat affects not only sensory properties but also nutritional content, microbial risks, and consumer acceptability [38-44]. Fats, Fat contributes to juiciness, flavour, and mouthfeel. Typically, sausages contain about 15–30% fat in traditional recipes. Lower-fat versions (below 15%) are available to meet dietary preferences. Fat sources include pork back fat, beef fat, or poultry skin. The quality and stability of fat are crucial, as oxidized fats can lead to rancidity and health concerns [45-51]. Non-Meat Ingredients, These are added for functional, sensory, and safety purposes as Salt (NaCl) to Enhances flavour. Aids in protein extraction for emulsion formation. Has preservative properties. However, excessive salt intake is linked to hypertension, so reduced-salt formulations are encouraged [52-58]. Spices and Flavourings as Pepper, garlic, paprika, coriander, and nutmeg are common. Spices not only enhance flavour but may offer antimicrobial and antioxidant benefits. Binders and Fillers which are used to improve water-holding capacity and texture as Starch, soy protein, milk protein, carrageenan. Some consumers avoid certain binders due to allergies or dietary restrictions. Water and Ice Added to Aid mixing. Control temperature. Improve texture and juiciness. Curing Agents (e.g., Sodium Nitrite) which are Essential in cured sausages for Colour development (stable pink colour). Inhibition of Clostridium botulinum. Flavour enhancement [59-65]. Health concern, Nitrites can form carcinogenic nitrosamines under certain conditions, so their use is strictly regulated. Food Additives In addition to nitrites, sausages may contain Phosphates to improve water retention and texture. Antioxidants (e.g., ascorbic acid, BHA/BHT) – Prevent fat oxidation. Preservatives (e.g., sorbates, lactates) – Extend shelf-life. Colorants are occasionally used in uncured sausages for uniform appearance. Food safety authorities (like Codex Alimentarius and national bodies such as the Egyptian Organization for Standardization) set maximum residue limits (MRLs) for these additives to ensure consumer safety [66-72]. Casings, Sausage casings may be Natural are made from cleaned animal intestines (commonly pork or sheep). Artificial are Made from collagen, cellulose, or plastic (for non-edible casings). Natural casings are preferred for traditional sausages due to their texture and appearance, while artificial ones offer uniformity and convenience in industrial production [73-79].

The technology used in sausage production significantly influences the product’s texture, flavour, shelf-life, and safety. Processing steps may vary depending on the type of sausage (e.g., fresh, cooked, fermented), but the core procedures remain largely consistent across products [80-86]. Grinding, Purpose To reduce meat particle size for easier mixing and uniform distribution of fat and other ingredients. Equipment include Bowl choppers, mincers, or grinders with varying plate sizes. Impact, Fine grinding improves emulsion stability but may increase exposure to microbial contamination if hygiene is poor [87-93]. Mixing and Emulsification, Mixing to Ensures uniform distribution of salt, spices, fat, and additives. Emulsification is especially critical in emulsified sausages like frankfurters and mortadella. Proteins form a stable matrix that traps fat and water. Overmixing can cause emulsion breakdown or texture defects. The Ice or cold water is often added during mixing to control temperature and prevent protein denaturation [94-100]. Stuffing, The meat mixture is filled into casings using vacuum fillers or piston stuffers. Vacuum stuffing helps eliminate air pockets, which could lead to spoilage or discoloration. Proper casing selection and filling pressure are important to avoid casing rupture or inconsistent product shape [101-108]. Linking and Shaping, Sausages are formed into individual units by twisting or using automated linkers. The shape depends on market expectations (e.g., short links for breakfast sausages vs. long coils for traditional varieties) [109-115]. Thermal Processing (Cooking/Smoking), Cooking, Cooked sausages are heated to internal temperatures of >70°C to ensure microbial safety. Methods, Water bath, steam, or oven cooking. Benefits, Inactivation of pathogens (e.g., Salmonella, Listeria monocytogenes), protein coagulation, and flavour development [116-122]. Smoking, Applied in some products for flavour, colour, and preservation. Types, Cold smoking (<30°C) and hot smoking (above 60°C). Smoke contains natural antimicrobials and antioxidants (e.g., phenols), but excessive smoking can introduce carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) [123-129]. Fermentation and Drying (for dry and semi-dry sausages), Fermentation by Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) convert sugars into lactic acid, lowering pH and enhancing safety. Drying to Reduces water activity (aw), inhibiting microbial growth. Examples as Salami, pepperoni. This method imparts characteristic tangy flavour and extended shelf-life but requires strict control of temperature, humidity, and pH [130-136].  Chilling and Packaging, after processing, sausages are rapidly cooled to <4°C to prevent microbial growth. Packaging options, Vacuum packaging, Extends shelf-life by removing oxygen. Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) Uses gases like CO? and N? to inhibit spoilage organisms. Active packaging May include antimicrobial agents or oxygen scavengers. Proper packaging protects against oxidation, contamination, and moisture loss [137-134]. Storage and Distribution, Storage temperatures depend on sausage type, Fresh: 0–4°C, short shelf-life. Cooked/fermented as Chilled or ambient, depending on water activity and preservation. Cold chain maintenance is essential during transport and retail to ensure safety and quality [135-141].

Microbiological safety is a major concern in sausage production due to the nature of raw materials, high moisture content, and multiple processing steps that can introduce or allow the growth of pathogenic microorganisms. Ensuring microbiological safety is essential to prevent foodborne illnesses and protect public health [142-148]. Sources of Microbial Contamination, Raw Meat and Fat the Contamination may occur at slaughterhouses or during transportation. Processing Environment as Equipment, workers' hands, and surfaces can harbor pathogens. Additives and Spices, Though generally considered safe, these may introduce Salmonella or Bacillus spores if not properly treated. Water, Poor water quality can serve as a vehicle for microbial pathogens [149-155]. Common Pathogens in Sausages as Listeria monocytogenes which can survive refrigeration. Particularly dangerous in ready-to-eat (RTE) cooked sausages. Causes listeriosis, which is life-threatening to pregnant women, elderly, and immunocompromised individuals [156-162]. Salmonella spp. often linked to raw meat and undercooked products. Causes gastrointestinal illness with fever, diarrhea, and abdominal cramps. Escherichia coli O157:H7 are Found in undercooked or contaminated raw meat sausages. Can lead to hemorrhagic colitis and hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) [163-170]. Clostridium botulinum Forms heat-resistant spores. Produces a lethal neurotoxin in anaerobic conditions (e.g., vacuum-packed sausages). Controlled by nitrites, low pH, low water activity, and proper thermal treatment. Staphylococcus aureus produces heat-stable enterotoxins. Often due to poor hygiene and temperature abuse during handling [171-176]. Factors Affecting Microbial Growth in Sausages as pH, Lower pH (<5.3 in fermented sausages) inhibits many pathogens. Water Activity (aw), Dry sausages with low aw resist microbial growth. Temperature, Time-temperature abuse during processing or storage can lead to rapid microbial multiplication. Oxygen Availability, Anaerobic conditions in packaging favour certain pathogens like C. botulinum. Competition, in fermented sausages, beneficial bacteria like LAB inhibit pathogens through acidification and bacteriocin production [170-176]. Control Measures and Hygiene Practices, Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs), strict personal hygiene. Equipment sanitation. Pest control and facility design. Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP), Identifies points where hazards can be prevented or reduced. Examples of CCPs, Cooking (temperature >70°C). Chilling (<4°C within 2 hours). Nitrite levels (within legal limits for effective C. botulinum control) [11-17]. Testing and Monitoring, Regular microbial testing (e.g., total plate count, coliforms, pathogens). Environmental swabbing and water quality monitoring. Use of Antimicrobials, Natural (e.g., rosemary extract, vinegar). Chemical (e.g., lactates, diacetates) – must be within allowed limits. Maintaining microbiological safety requires a multi-hurdle approach combining hygiene, correct formulation, proper processing, and rigorous monitoring [31-37]. Chemical Safety of Sausages, Chemical safety concerns in sausage production revolve around the use of additives, the presence of environmental contaminants, residues, and chemical changes during processing and storage. These factors can pose significant risks to consumers if not properly controlled [41-47]. Use of Food Additives, Additives are essential in sausage production for preservation, flavour, colour, and texture. However, excessive or improper use can lead to health concerns. Nitrites and Nitrates Purpose, Preserve colour (stable pink), inhibit Clostridium botulinum, and enhance flavour. Concern, Nitrites can react with amines in meat to form nitrosamines, some of which are carcinogenic. Regulation, Strict limits on sodium nitrite levels (e.g., Codex allows max 150 ppm in cured meats). Mitigation, Adding antioxidants like ascorbic acid can reduce nitrosamine formation [131-137]. Phosphates Improve water-binding capacity and texture. Excess intake may affect calcium metabolism and kidney function. MRLs are set to ensure consumer safety. Antioxidants Examples Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), tocopherols. Used to prevent lipid oxidation. Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) in regulated amounts. Preservatives, Include sorbates, benzoates, lactates to inhibit spoilage microbes. Overuse may cause gastrointestinal discomfort or allergic reactions in sensitive individuals [151-157]. Chemical Contaminants and Residue, Veterinary Drug Residues, Improper withdrawal times in livestock may leave residues in meat. Examples: Antibiotics (e.g., tetracycline), antiparasitics. Residues can lead to antimicrobial resistance and allergic reactions. Controlled by pre-slaughter testing and adherence to withdrawal periods. Heavy Metals, Contamination from water, spices, machinery, or packaging. Common metals as Lead (Pb), Cadmium (Cd), Mercury (Hg), Arsenic (As). Toxic even at low levels; monitored under international safety limits. Mycotoxins, Toxins from molds in spices or cereal-based fillers. Aflatoxins are the most potent and carcinogenic. Controlled by screening raw materials and proper storage. Oxidative Rancidity, Cause Reaction of oxygen with unsaturated fats in meat and fat. Effects, Off-flavours, discoloration, nutrient loss, and formation of harmful aldehydes. Prevention, Use of antioxidants, vacuum packaging, oxygen barrier films, and cold storage. Residual Cleaning Agents or Packaging Migration, Improper rinsing of equipment after cleaning can leave residues (e.g., quaternary ammonium compounds). Poor-quality packaging materials may release chemicals like phthalates or bisphenol A (BPA) into sausages, especially during storage at high temperatures. Chemical safety in sausage production requires strict regulatory compliance, good manufacturing practices, careful ingredient sourcing, and regular product testing. Continuous monitoring and risk assessment are necessary to safeguard public health and ensure product integrity [161-167].

Nutritional Value of Sausages, Sausages provide a rich source of essential nutrients but can also be high in undesirable components like saturated fat and sodium. Their nutritional profile varies depending on the type of meat used, fat content, additives, and processing methods. Macronutrient Composition, Protein, Sausages are a good source of high-quality animal protein, containing all essential amino acids. Protein content typically ranges from 10–20%. Emulsified and poultry-based sausages may have slightly lower protein levels, especially if fillers are used. Fat, Traditional sausages may contain 15–30% fat, often high in saturated fatty acids (SFAs). Fat provides energy (9 kcal/g), enhances flavour and texture. Healthier options now include Reduced-fat formulations. Use of lean meat and vegetable oils (e.g., sunflower or olive oil). Fat replacers like inulin, carrageenan, or oat fiber. Carbohydrates, generally low in pure meat sausages. Present in small amounts if binders/fillers (e.g., starch, bread crumbs) are added. Micronutrients, Iron and Zinc, Present in good amounts; essential for oxygen transport and immune function. B Vitamins Especially B1 (thiamin), B2 (riboflavin), B6, and B12 – important for metabolism and nervous system health. Sodium, Often high due to added salt and curing agents. Excess sodium intake is linked to hypertension and cardiovascular disease. WHO recommends <2g sodium/day (?5g salt) per adult. Caloric Value, The caloric value depends on fat and moisture content. Standard sausages range from 250–350 kcal/100g. Low-fat or poultry-based options may offer 150–220 kcal/100g. Health Concerns and Processed Meat Classification, The World Health Organization (WHO) and International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classify processed meats (including sausages) as Group 1 carcinogens based on evidence linking high consumption with colorectal cancer. Concerns Include Presence of nitrosamines. High sodium and saturated fat content. Frequent consumption associated with increased risk of heart disease, cancer, and obesity [111-117]. Recommendations, Moderate intake of processed meats. Prefer leaner varieties, lower in sodium and fat. Look for clean-label sausages (with fewer chemical additives and more natural ingredients). Functional and Fortified Sausages, in response to health concerns, manufacturers now produce Functional sausages enriched with Omega-3 fatty acids. Dietary fiber, Probiotics, Antioxidants (e.g., polyphenols). Fortified sausages may include added as Calcium, Iron, Vitamin D or E. These innovations aim to turn sausages from indulgent foods into nutritionally enhanced options.

Quality Control and Assurance Systems in Sausage Production, Quality control (QC) and quality assurance (QA) systems are essential in sausage manufacturing to ensure products meet safety, regulatory, and consumer standards. These systems involve monitoring every stage of production, from raw materials to final packaging. Raw Material Inspection, Meat Quality Checks, pH measurement (ideal: 5.4–5.8 for fresh meat). Colour evaluation. Absence of off-odors or spoilage signs. Fat and Additive Quality, Visual and chemical inspection of fat (oxidation status, purity). Verification of the identity and concentration of preservatives, spices, and binders. Microbial Screening, Testing for Salmonella, Listeria, and E. coli in incoming meat. Spices and non-meat ingredients tested for microbial loads and contaminants. In-Process Quality Control, Process Parameters, Mixing time, temperature, and order of ingredient addition. Emulsion stability tested by cooking loss or oil separation. Stuffing pressure and casing integrity. Temperature Control, Continuous monitoring during mixing, filling, cooking, and chilling. Real-time data logging helps detect deviations that may impact product safety or texture. Metal Detection, Metal detectors or X-ray scanners installed to detect foreign bodies. Essential for consumer safety and compliance with food standards. Finished Product Testing, Microbiological Analysis, Total Plate Count (TPC). Pathogens: Listeria, Salmonella, E. coli O157:H7. Yeasts and molds in certain sausage types. Chemical Testing, Moisture, protein, fat, and salt content. Nitrite/nitrate levels. Presence of contaminants (heavy metals, residual cleaning agents, mycotoxins). Sensory Evaluation, Appearance, texture, taste, and aroma assessed by trained panels. Helps ensure consumer acceptability and product consistency. Packaging and Labelling Quality, Packaging Integrity, Leak testing, seal strength. Oxygen permeability checked to ensure shelf-life. Label Verification, Ingredient list, allergen declarations, expiration dates. Nutritional information and regulatory claims (e.g., “low sodium”, “organic”). Quality Assurance Systems, Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs), Standardized hygiene protocols, facility maintenance, and staff training. Prevent cross-contamination and ensure clean processing environments. Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP). Systematic approach to identifying and controlling food safety hazards. Key CCPs in sausage production, cooking temperatures. Metal detection. Chilling times and temperatures. ISO Certifications, ISO 22000: Food safety management system. ISO 9001: General quality management. Certification improves traceability, accountability, and market trust. Traceability Systems, Barcode or RFID tagging from raw materials to final product. Enables fast recalls and quality audits in case of complaints or contamination. Regulatory Compliance, Products must comply with, Codex Alimentarius standards. National food safety laws (e.g., FDA, EFSA). Halal/Kosher certification (where applicable). Regular audits and inspections by food safety authorities ensure compliance with national and international standards [151-157].

Conclusions

Sausages are among the most widely consumed processed meat products globally, appreciated for their flavour, convenience, and variety. However, they present a complex matrix from a food safety and quality perspective, involving physical, microbiological, chemical, and nutritional factors. Microbiological safety remains a primary concern, especially in ready-to-eat and raw-fermented varieties, with pathogens such as Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella spp., and Clostridium botulinum posing significant risks. Chemical hazards, including nitrites, heavy metals, drug residues, and oxidative by-products, must be rigorously controlled to protect consumers from chronic exposure and carcinogenic risks. Nutritionally, sausages are rich in high-quality protein, iron, and B-vitamins, but often contain high levels of saturated fat and sodium, contributing to non-communicable diseases when consumed excessively. Quality control systems, such as HACCP and ISO 22000, are critical in managing risks and ensuring product consistency and safety throughout the processing chain. Sausages are evolving beyond traditional formulations, with new products focusing on low-fat, low-sodium, and functional health-enhancing ingredients to meet modern consumer demands. Recommendations, For Producers, Adopt multi-hurdle approaches to safety, combining thermal processing, low pH, preservatives, and packaging innovations. Shift toward clean-label formulations by reducing artificial additives and incorporating natural alternatives. Invest in continuous training for workers on hygiene and food safety protocols. Regularly update and maintain quality assurance systems and traceability tools. For Regulatory Authorities, Enhance surveillance for emerging contaminants and antimicrobial-resistant bacteria. Standardize limits on nitrite/nitrate levels and enforce stricter labelling of additives and allergens. Support public awareness campaigns promoting balanced consumption of processed meats. For Researchers, Explore alternative preservation techniques (e.g., high-pressure processing, bacteriocins, plant extracts). Investigate bioactive ingredients that can improve sausage health benefits without compromising safety or sensory appeal. Conduct epidemiological studies linking sausage consumption patterns with public health trends in different populations. For Consumers, Moderate intake of sausages and processed meats as part of a balanced diet. Choose products with lower fat, sodium, and fewer synthetic additives. Be informed about labelling, including allergen declarations, expiry dates, and nutrition claims.

The author declare no conflicts of interest.

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68. Shaltout FA. Abattoir and bovine tuberculosis as a reemerging foodborne disease. Biomed J Sci Tech Res. 2024; 54.
69. Saad SM, Shaltout FA, Abou Elroos NA, El-nahas SB.  Antimicrobial effect of some essential oils on some pathogenic bacteria in minced meat. J Food Sci Nutr Res. 2019; 2: 012-020.
70. Shaltout FAE. Good news about application of advanced methods in food examination. Dietary Nourishment Food Processing Tech. 2024; 1: 1-9.  
71. Saad SM, Shaltout FA, Abou Elroos NA, El-nahas SB. Incidence of staphylococci and E. coli in meat and some meat products.  EC Nutrition. 2019.
72. Shaltout FAE. Our options to improve food safety and quality by using preservatives which are used in food processing and preservation. Dietary Nourishment Food Processing Tech. 2024; 1: 1-16.
73. Saad SM, Hassanin FS, Shaltout FA, Nassif MZ, Seif MZ. Prevalence of methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus in some ready-to-eat meat products. Ame J Biomed Sci Res. 2019; 4: 460-464.
74. Fahim S. Pollution of chicken meat and its products by heavy metals. Res rev healthcare. Open Access J. 2019; 4: 3381-3382.
75. Shaltout FA, EL-diasty EM, Mohamed MSM. Effects of chitosan on quality attributes fresh meat slices stored at 40C. BENHA VET MED J. 2018; 35: 157-168.
76. Shaltout, Aziz Z. Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis in poultry meat and their epidemiology. Vet. Med. J. Giza. 2004; 52: 429-436.
77. Shaltout FA, El-Shorah HF, El Zahaby DI, Lotfy LM.  Bacteriological profile of chicken meat products. Sci Fed Food Dairy Technol J. 2018; 2:3.
78. Shaltout FA, Mohamed AH, El-Shater, Abd El-Aziz WM. Bacteriological assessment of Street Vended Meat Products sandwiches in kalyobia Governorate. BENHA VET MED J. 2015; 28: 58?66.
79. Shaltout FA, El shatter MA, Fahim HM. Studies on antibiotic residues in beef and effect of cooking and freezing on antibiotic residues beef samples. Scholarly J Food Nutritionm. 2019; 2: 1-4
80. Shaltout FA, Zakaria IM, Nabil ME. Incidence of some anaerobic bacteria isolated from chicken meat products with special reference to clostridium perfringens. Nutrition and Food Toxicology 2.5. 2018; 429-438.
81. Shaltout FA, Maarouf AAA, Elkhouly MES. Bacteriological evaluation of frozen sausage. Nutrition Food Toxicol. 2017; 1: 174-185.
82. Shaltout FA, El-Toukhy EI, Abd El-Hai MM. Molecular diagnosis of salmonellae in frozen meat and some meat products. Nutrition Food Technol Open Access. 2019; 5: 1-6.
83. Shaltout FA, Ali AM, Rashad SM. Bacterial contamination of fast foods. Benha J Applied Sci (BJAS). 2016; 1: 45-51.
84. Shaltout FA, Zakaria IM, Eltanani J, Elmelegy A. Microbiological status of meat and chicken received to University student hostel. BENHA VET MED J. 2015; 29: 187?192.
85. Saad SM, Edris AM, Shaltout FA, Shimaa E. Isolation and identification of salmonellae and E.coli from meat and poultry cuts by using A. multiplex PCR.  Benha Vet Med J. 2012; 16-26.
86. Saad SM, Shaltout FA. Mycological evaluation of camel carcasses at Kalyobia abattoirs. Vet Med J. Giza. 1998; 46: 223-229.
87. Shaltout FA. Whey we extend the food shelf life by aid of natural antioxidants?. Biomed J Sci Tech Res. 2024; 59.
88. Saad SM, Shaltout FA, Abou Elroos NA, El-nahas SB. Antimicrobial effect of some essential oils on some pathogenic bacteria in minced meat. J Food Sci Nutr Res. 2019; 2: 012-020.
89. European food safety authority (EFSA). (n.d.). Scientific opinions on food additives and foodborne hazards.
90. Saad SM, Hassanin FS, Shaltout FA, Nassif MZ, Seif MZ. Prevalence of methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus in some ready-to-eat meat products. Ame J Biomed Sci Res. 2019; 4: 460-464.
91. Saad SM, Shaltout FA, Abou Elroos NA,  El-nahas SB. Incidence of staphylococci and E. coli in meat and some meat products. EC Nutrition. 2019.
92. Shaltout FA, Riad EM, Ahmed TES, Elhassan AA. Studying the effect of gamma irradiation on bovine offal's infected with mycobacterium tuberculosis bovine type. J Food Biotechnol Res. 2017; 1: 1-5.
93. Shaltout FA, Zakaria IM, Nabil ME. Incidence of some anaerobic bacteria isolated from chicken meat products with special reference to clostridium perfringens. Nutrition Food Toxicol. 2018; 429-438.
94. Shaltout FA, Hassan MA, Hassanin FS. Thermal inactivation of enterohaemorrhagic escherichia coli o157:h7 and its sensitivity to nisin and lactic acid cultures. 1rst Ann. Confr., FVM., Moshtohor. 2004.
95. Shaltout FA, El-diasty EM, Elmesalamy M, Elshaer M. Study on fungal contamination of some chicken meat products with special reference to 2 the use of PCR for its identification. Conference, Vet Med J Giza. 2014; 60: 1-10.
96. shaltout FA. Microbiological aspects of semi-cooked chicken meat products. Benha Vet Med J. 2002; 13: 15-26.
97. Shaltout FA, Thabet MG, Koura HA. Impact of some essential oils on the quality aspect and shelf life of meat. BENHA VET MED J. 2017; 33: 351-364.
98. Shaltout FA, Farouk M, Hosam AA. Ibrahim and mostafa E.M. Afifi4. Incidence of Coliform and staphylococcus aureus in ready to eat fast foods. BENHA VET MED J. 2017; 32: 13-17.
99. Shaltout FA, Zakaria IM, Nabil ME. Detection and typing of clostridium perfringens in some retail chicken meat products. BENHA VET MED J. 2017; 33: 283-291.
100. Shaltout FA. Studies on mycotoxins in meat and meat by products. M.V.Sc. Thesis faculty of veterinary medicine, Moshtohor, Zagazig University Benha branch. 1992.
101. Shaltout FA. Mycological and mycotoxicological profile of some meat products. Ph.D. Thesis, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Moshtohor, Zagazig University Benha branch. 1996.
102. Shaltout FA. Proteolytic psychrotrophes in some meat products. Alex. Vet. Med. J. 1998; 14: 97-107.
103. Shaltout FA. Anaerobic bacteria in vacuum packed meat products. Benha Vet. Med.J. 1999; 10: 1-10.
104. Shaltout FA. Protozoal foodborne pathogens in some meat products. Assiut Vet. Med. J. 2000; 42: 54-59.
105. Shaltout FA. Quality evaluation of sheep carcasses slaughtered at Kalyobia abattoirs. Assiut Vet Med J. 2001; 46: 150-159.
106. Institute of medicine (US). Dietary reference intakes for water, potassium, sodium, chloride, and sulfate. National Academies Press. 2005.
107. Shaltout FA. Microbiological aspects of semi-cooked chicken meat products. Benha Vet. Med. J. 13: 15-26.
108. Shaltout FA. Yersinia enterocolitica in some meat products and fish marketed at Benha city. The Third international conference Mansoura. 2003; 29-30.
109. Shaltout FA. Microbiological quality of chicken carcasses at modern poultry plant. The 3rd Scientific Conference, Faculty of Vet. Med., Benha University. 2009; 1-3.
110. Shaltout FA, Abdel Aziz AM. Salmonella enterica serovar enteritidis in poultry meat and their     epidemiology. Vet. Med. J. Giza. 2004; 52: 429-436.
111. Shaltout FA, Abdel Aziz AM. Escherichia coli strains in slaughtered animals and their public health importance. J. Egypt. Vet. Med. Association. 2004; 64: 7-21.
112. Shaltout FA, Amin R, Nassif MZ, Abdel-wahab S. Detection of aflatoxins in some meat products. Benha vet med j. 2014; 27: 368-374.
113. Shaltout FA, Afify, Jehan Riad, EM, Abo Elhasan, Asmaa A. Improvement of microbiological status of oriental sausage. J Egyptian Vet Med Association. 2012; 72: 157-167.
114. Shaltout FA, Daoud JR. Chemical analytical studies on rabbit meat and liver. Benha Vet. Med. J. 1996; 8: 17-27.    
115. Shaltout FA, Edris AM. Contamination of shawerma with pathogenic yeasts. Assiut Vet Medical J. 1999; 40: 34-39.
116. Shaltout FA, Eldiasty E, Mohamed MS. Incidence of lipolytic and proteolytic fungi in some chicken meat products and their public health significance. Animal Health Research Institute: First Inter Conference Food Safety Technol.19-23. Cairo Egypt. 2014; 79-89.
117. Shaltout FA, Eldiasty E, Salem R, Asmaa H. Mycological quality of chicken carcasses and extending shelf – life by using preservatives at refrigerated storage. Vet Med J -Giza (VMJG). 2016; 62: 1-7.
118. Shaltout FA, Eldiasty ESR, Fatema D. Mycological evaluation of some ready to eat meat products with special reference to molecular chacterization. Vet Med J–Giza. 2016; 62: 9-14.
119. Shaltout FA, Elshater M, Abdelaziz W. Bacteriological assessment of street vended meat products sandwiches in Kalyobia Governorate. Benha Vet. Med. J. 2015; 28: 58-66.
120. Shaltout FA, Gerges MT, Shewail AA. Impact of organic acids and their salts on microbial quality and shelf life of beef. Assiut vet med j. 2018; 64: 164-177
121. Shaltout FA, Ghoneim AM, Essmail ME, Yousseif A. Studies on aflatoxin B1 residues in rabbits and their pathological  effects.  J. Egypt. Vet. Med. Association. 2001; 61: 85-103.
122. Shaltout FA, Hanan MT, El-Lawendy. Heavy metal residues in shawerma. Beni-Suef Vet. Med. J. 2003; 13: 213-224.
123. Shaltout FA, Hashim MF. Histamine in salted, Smoked and canned fish products. Benha Vet. Med.J. 2002; 13: 1-11. 
124. Codex Alimentarius Commission. (n.d.). General standard for food additives (GSFA). Food Agriculture Organization (FAO).
125. Shaltout FA, Hashim MF, Elnahas S. Levels of some heavy metals in fish (tilapia nilotica and Claris lazera) at Menufia Governorate. Benha Vet. Med. J. 2015; 29: 56-64.
126. Shaltout FA, Ibrahim HM. Quality evaluation of luncheon and Alexandrian sausage. Benha Vet. Med. J. 1997; 10: 1-10.
127. Shaltout FA, Nassif M, Shakran A. Quality of battered and breaded chicken meat products. Global J Agr Food Safety Sci. 2014; 1: 283-299.
128. FDA. (n.d.). CFR Title 21 – Food and drugs. U.S. Food and drug administration.
129. Shaltout FA, Amani M. Salem AH, Mahmoud KA. Bacterial aspect of cooked meat and offal at street vendors level. Benha vet med j. 2013; 24: 320-328.
130. Shaltout FA, Salem RM. Moulds, aflatoxin B1 and Ochratoxin A in frozen livers and meat products. Vet. Med. J. Giza. 2000; 48: 341-346.
131. Yasser H. Al-Tarazi, A. Al-Zamil, Shaltout FA, Abdel- Samei H. Microbiological status of raw cow milk marketed in northern Jordan. AVMJ. 2002; 49: 180-194.
132. Shaltout FA, Zakaria IM and Nabil ME. Incidence of some anaerobic bacteria isolated from chicken meat products with special reference to clostridium perfringens. Nutrition Food Toxicol. 2018; 2: 429-438.
133. Shaltout FA, El-diasty EM, Mohamed MS. Incidence of lipolytic and proteolytic fungi in some chicken meat products and their public health significance. 1st Scientific confe food safety Technol. 2014: 79-89.
134. Shaltout FA, El-diasty EM, Salem M, Asmaa H. Mycological quality of chicken carcasses and extending shelf -life by using preservatives at refrigerated storage. Vet Med J – Giza. 2016; 62: 1-10.
135. Shaltout FA, Salem RM, El-Diasty EM, Hassan WIM. Effect of lemon fruits and turmeric extracts on fungal pathogens in refrigerated chicken fillet meat. Global Vet. 2019; 21: 156-160,
136. Shaltout FA, El-diasty EM, Elmesalamy M, Elshaer M. Study on fungal contamination of some chicken meat products with special reference to 2 the use of PCR for its identification. Conf, Vet Med J – Giza. 2014; 60: 1-10.
137. Shaltout FA, Salem RM, El-diasty Eman, Diab FAH. Mycological evaluation of some ready to eat meat products with special reference to molecular characterization. Vet Med J – Giza. 2016; 62: 9-14.
138. Shaltout FA, Ahmed Maarouf AA, Eman Ahmed MK. Heavy metal residues in chicken cuts up and processed chicken meat products. BENHA VET MED J. 2018; 34: 473-483.
139. Shaltout FA, Lamada HM, Edris EAM. Bacteriological examination of some ready to eat meat and chicken meals. Biomed J Sci Tech Res. 2020; 27:  20461-20465.
140. Asmaa S, Fahim S. Prevalence of some food poisoning bacteria in semi cooked chicken meat products at Qaliubiya governorate by recent Vitek 2 compact and PCR techniques. Benha Vet Med J. 2020; 38: 88-92.
141. Shaltout FA. Good idea on preservatives and the natural preservatives and meat preservation against the foodborne pathogens and the spoilage microorganisms. Biomed J Sci Tech Res. 2024; 57.
142. Asmaa S, Fahim S. Detection of food poisoning bacteria in some semi-cooked chicken meat products marketed at Qaliubiya governorate. Benha Vet Med J. 2020; 38: 93-96.
143. Shaltout FA. Abattoir and bovine tuberculosis as a reemerging foodborne disease. Cli Med Rev Rep. 2024; 6: 1-7.
144. Shaltout FA. Viruses in beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish and poultry meat products. Food Sci Nutrition Technol. 2023; 8: 1-10.
145. Shaltout FA. Human salmonellosis acquired through the food. Acta Scientific Pharma Sci. 2024; 8: 12-17
146. Elkholy RA, Hussein MN, Abou El-Roos NA, Shaltout FAE. Enhancing microbiological and histological quality of frozen turkey meat using vinegar. Egy J Vet Sci. 2025; 1-8.
147. Shaltout FA. Availability, price, tradition, religion, income, social, development and economic influences on meat consumption. Med J Clin Trials Case Stud. 2024; 8: 000370.
148. Mohamed QM, Fahim A. Shaltout FA, Ali EA. Multidrug-resistant bacteria from raw chevon and mutton meat. Egy J Vet Sci. 2025; 1-8.
149. Shaltout FAE, Ab delazez Ahmed Helmy Barr, Elsayed Abdelaziz M. Pathogenic micro-organisms in meat products. Biomed J Sci Tech Res. 2024; 41.
150. Mohamed QM, Fahim A. Shaltout FA, Ali EA. Bacteriological quality profiles and prevalence of staphylococcus aureus, salmonella species, and e. coli in meat samples of sheep and goats. Egy J Vet Sci. 2025; 1-7.  
151. Ibrahim SM, Hassanin FS, Abou-Elroos NS, Shaltout FA. Quantifying the antimicrobial efficacy of selected herbal essential oils against bacteria in simulated beef steak conditions. Egy J Veter Sci. 2025; 1-9.
152. Shaltout FA. The availability, the price, the tradition, the religion, the income, the social, the development and the economic influences on the meat consumption. Biomed J Sci Tech Res. 2024; 55.
153. Ibrahim SM, Hassanin FS, Abou-Elroos NS, Shaltout FA. Evaluating the impact of certain herbal essential oils on the shelf life and chemical composition of beef steak. Egy J Veter Sci. 2025; 1-8.   
154. Shaltout FA.  Our opinion on using of irradiation in food preservation and production. J Med Cli Case Rep. 2024; 1: 1-9.  
155. Anees KP, El-diasty EM, Shaltout FA. Mycological evaluation and occurrence of aflatoxins and ochratoxin a in tilapia oreochromis niloticus fish and fish products. J Adv Veter Res. 2023; 13: 1381-1385.
156. Amr AK, Hassanin FS, Hassan MA, Shaltout FAE. Trials to estimate and control the residual levels of heterocyclic aromatic amines in meat products. Assiut Vet. Med. J. 2024; 70: 98-105.
157. Shaltout FA, Mohammed I, Afify EA. Detection of E. coli O157 and Salmonella species in some raw chicken meat cuts in Ismailia province, Egypt. Benha Veter Med J. 2020; 39: 101-104.
158. Hassanin FS, Shaltout FA, Maarouf AA, El-Sisy SF, Ahmed AE. Bacteriological profile of frozen chicken meat cuts at Qalubiya governorate markets. Benha Veter Med J. 2020; 39: 1-5.
159. Shaltout FA, Heikal GI, Ghanem AM. Mycological quality of some chicken meat cuts in Gharbiya governorate with special reference to Aspergillus flavus virulent factors. Benha Veter Med J. 2022; 40: 12-16.
160. Shaltout F. Application of irradiation in food preservation and production. J Pathol Res Rev Rep. SRC/JPR-190. 2024; 6: 1-8.  
161. Taha ST, Shaltout FA, Shimaa N. Edris SN, Mohamed E. Nabil ME. Effect of lavender oil, clove oil and frankincense extract on sensory and microbial properties of raw drumsticks in refrigerator. Benha Veter Med J. 2024; 46: 135-139.
162. Shaltout FA, Salem RM, Eldiasty EM, Diab FA. Experimental study on the effect of propionibacterium and acetic acid on candida albicans contamination in chicken fillet stored at chilling conditions. Benha Veter Med J. 2023; 43: 91-96.
163. Mubarak SR, Abou EL-Roos NA Hussein MN, Shaltout FAE.  Comparative microbiological evaluation between fresh and frozen bovine liver. Benha Veter Med J. 2024; 47: 99-102.
164. El Asely MM, Fath Elbab GF, Shaltout FAE. Antibiotic residues in commercially available freshwater and marine fish: a risk assessment. Egy J Aquatic Biol Fisheries. 2024; 28: 397-410.
165. El Asely MM, Fath Elbab GF, Shaltout AE. Impact of freezing intervals on oxytetracycline and ciprofloxacin residues in nile tilapia and catfish muscles. Egypt. J. Vet. Sci. 2025; 56: 1419-1424.  
166. Elkholy RA, Abou EL-Roos NA, Hussein MN, Shaltout FAE. Differential microbiological quality on marketed frozen turkey breast and thigh meat. Egypt. J. Vet. Sci. 2025; 56: 1-10.
167. Shaltout FA. The food additives used in food production, advantages and disadvantages. World J Internal Med Sur. 2024; 1: 1-17
168. Shaltout FA. Right methods to extend the meat shelf- life by using of natural preservatives and their public health importance.  J Med Care Health Rev. 2024; 1: 1-17.
169. Saad M. Saad, Fahim A. Shaltout, Amal A. A. Farag, Mohammed HF. organophosphorus residues in fish in rural areas. J Progress Eng Phy Sci. 2022; 1: 27-31.
170. Shaltout FA. Importance of extending the shelf life of the meat. J Med Cli Case Rep. 2024; 01: 1-10.    
171. Shaltout FAE, Mona N. Hussein, Nada Kh. Elsayed. Histological detection of unauthorized herbal and animal contents in some meat products. J Adv Veter Res. 2023; 13: 157-160.
172. Shaltout FA. Abattoir and bovine tuberculosis as a reemerging foodborne disease. Cli Med Rev Rep. 2023; 6: 1-7       
173. Shaltout FA, Salem RM, Eldiasty EM, Diab FA. Seasonal impact on the prevalence of yeast contamination of chicken meat products and edible giblets. J Adv Veter Res. 2022; 12: 641-644.
174. Shaltout S, Shaltout F. Food borne bacterial diseases due to consumption of meat, fish and poultry products. Arch Health Sci. 2024; 8: 1-8.  
175. Shaltout FA. Our opinion on using of irradiation in food preservation and production. J Med Cli Cas Rep. 2024; 01: 1-9    
176. Hakeem KP, El-diasty EM, Shaltout FAE. Effects of natural compounds of some plants on microbial contamination and sensory quality of fish fillet during refrigeration. Benha Veter Med J. 2023; 45: 152-156.